Cognitive-Behavioral Case Study of London: A Conceptualization and Treatment Plan

In this conceptualization and treatment plan, the client’s presenting problems will be discussed in detail including symptoms and diagnosis. All disclosed problem areas for the client are described including, depression and anxiety. Cognitive behavioral theory is explained including the theory’s core concepts and key elements. Cognitive behavioral theory is utilized as the theory of choice throughout the treatment plan and conceptualization. The goals and interventions utilized are outlined also utilizing cognitive behavioral theory techniques. The goals for this client and treatment plan include; In conclusion the expected outcome of each intervention utilized is disclosed and all other challenges of the entire process are given. Presenting Concerns London presents as a 24-year old biracial woman of African-American and Caucasian decent. London came into counseling due to ongoing depression and poor peer relations caused by her anxiety and mistrust issues. London is a single mother recently discharged from the military with minimal support systems in place. She is currently working in a job she dislikes and feels trapped in her present life as it is. Her child’s father is incarcerated and she has been hiding this information from her family out of fear of judgment. London has four siblings three of which are younger than she. London and her siblings were raised by their paternal grandmother due to her parent’s drug abuse issues. London’s grandmother often displayed signs of depression during her childhood although it went undiagnosed without treatment. London described some symptoms of post-partum depression after the birth of her son, which went untreated. London does not have good relationships with her siblings nor does she have any solid peer relationships she feels she needs. London was raised as a Christian, but feels disconnected from God and guilty over her choices to have a child out of wedlock. London is now feeling increased anxiety about telling her family about her issues with her son’s father and what his return will do to their already strained relationship. Case Conceptualization Speaking to London revealed many issues with forming and maintain healthy relationships. London’s lack of substantial relational exchanges with her parents seems to have caused much anxiety now that she herself is a parent (she reports being anxious around her child). Both London’s mother and father were not present during the ties she was trying to build a solid sense of self-awareness. London reports constantly being indecisive about things, as she was unsure of her likes and dislikes. London may have developed a poor sense of self, as she felt rejected by both parents. That rejection has now resurfaced in the relationship with Zion’s father, Xavier. Like her parents, Xavier left London during a pivotal time in her life. London may now believe she will become withdrawn and distant towards her own child the way her mother and father had done to her. London’s disconnect from herself and reality continued throughout adulthood when her grandmother did not pay as much attention to her as she would’ve liked. London has allowed feelings of incompetence and inadequacy hinder her progress at work, school, and in her peer relationships. London developed a habit of distancing herself from others in an attempt to avoid developing relationships. This distance included her siblings as she indicated she does not call them, visit them, or take any of their calls. London is also dishonest about what is going in her life with her family. London’s distorted view on her relationships has fueled her desire to maintain unhealthy relationships with men including her children’s father and other male figures. London reports being afraid to break off the relationship as she does not feel she can find someone else. Goals and Interventions

Negative effect of video games on children Essay

The Negtive Effects of Video Gaming on Children Children don’t have to buy an expensive gaming system to play video games anymore, than can simply log onto the internet through their home computer or their handheld devices and they have an array of videogames to choose from. Every time a child pops a role playing videogame into their gaming console or logs onto the internet to play so called interactive video games, they enter a virtual world where there are no real consequences for their actions. While playing violent video games children can choose to play the violent roles of either car thieves or killers. The more time a child spends playing video games the less time they spend engaged in normal social activities with their friends. When a child is allowed to spend hours a day playing video games, especially violent role playing games, they can cause them to become violent, socially isolated, and depressed. First person role playing games allow children to identify with their character (Harding). The more time children spend as killing machines in the false reality of the video gaming world, the more desensitized they become to death and killing in the real world. Studies have shown the more time children spend playing violent video games, the more likely they are to respond to real world situations with aggression and violence (Gordon). A 2004 study published in the Journal of Adolescence found children, particularly teens, who played violent video games are more likely to become aggressive, confrontational, and see a decline in their academic performance (Harding). Allowing children to play violent video games is not worth the risk they pose! Children are exposed to enough violence through television without the help of violent games offered to them over the internet and through popular video gaming systems. Video games do not only expose children to violence they allow them to engage in it through the violent roles they allow them to play. Many of the roles children play over the internet or through their game consoles simulate real world situations where they can steal and murder with no consequences. Parents should not need to read the results of a study for them to realize that allowing their child to play violent roles in video games, where they kill and steal, will encourage violent behavior from them in the real world. During September 2009 in Ohio a sixteen year old boy named Daniel Petric was forbidden by his father from buying the new version of the violent video game Halo that he was obsessed with. After being forbidden from buying the new version of the violent game Daniel snuck out of his house and bought it anyway. When Daniel’s father discovered he had disobeyed him, and bought the game, he took it away from him and locked it in his lockbox where he kept his gun. Later that same night, sixteen year old Daniel unlocked his father’s lockbox to retrieve his game and found his father’s gun. After finding the gun Daniel went into his parent’s bedroom and shot both his father and mother in the killing them (Gordon). No one can say with absolute certainty that the video game Halo caused the boy to shoot his parents. One thing is obvious, if the boy’s account of events are to be believed, the game played a huge factor in his descion to murder his parents that evening. Violent behavior unfortunately is not the only negative effect from children playing video games to often. A recent study by Douglas A Gentile, an associate professor of psychology at Iowa State University found that children who spend several hours a day playing video games are at risk to become addicted to them. Once a child becomes addicted to their video game, their addiction can cause them to become depressed, anxious, and have social problems including social isolation (Gilmore). If a child is spending several hours a day gaming they can very easily become depressed. When a child spends most of their day playing video games they do not engage in normal healthy physical activity with their friends. It makes sense that the more time a child spends isolated playing video games the more likely they are to become depressed. Children need to spend time interacting with their friends in order to develop normal social skills. When children isolate themselves playing videogames alone all day, they begin to lose their friends and social skills. Studies show that the depression caused from children pathologically playing video games can be easily lifted when they simply stop playing them (Frontelera). Douglas Gentile said, â€Å"We found in children who started playing pathologically anxiety and depression got worse. And, when they stopped gaming the depression lifted† (qtd. in Gilmore). The idea that allowing a child to play his or her favorite video game for a couple hours a day can lead them to social isolation may sound farfetched, unfortunately it is not. The more time a child spends playing video games the less desire they have for one on one human contact. Although, children have the ability to interact with other players including their friends through the internet, their friends become part of the game itself and there is no real contact. Children need to spend time in social environments with their peers in order to learn and maintain the social skills they need to navigate through life. When a child loses his or her social skills they quickly become isolated and depressed. Their isolation and depression can lead them to identify themselves more with the character they are playing in their videogame than their own real life. First person role playing games allow children to identify with their character. Studies have shown the more time teenagers spend playing violent videogames at home the more likely they are to respond to real world situations with aggression and violence. A child’s imagination is amazing and sometimes limitless, unfortunately it can become dangerous when they begin to imagine themselves stealing cars and murdering people while playing first person role playing Videogames allow children to become kings and queens, or car thieves and murderers. Children can become so entranced by the different roles they play in the virtual worlds created for them through videogames that the line between the real world and the virtual one depicted in the video games they are playing becomes blurred. . Violent video games rewarded children for things like stealing cars and killing people.

Has society outgrown religion? Essay

Has society outgrown religion? // A hindrance to society or a useful delusion? Over eighty percent of the planet’s population partake in some form of religion, which would lead you to believe that it really does have a huge benefit to us not only as individuals but as an entire species. But could this be misleading? Once you remove the people from this eighty percent that follow religion only as a family tradition, or because it’s the simplest explanation to the questions for which they don’t have answers and leave the people that truly and honestly believe that religion is still in-date useful to society, one could argue that the number probably isn’t so overwhelming. Why is it that religion seems to have lost its veracity? It could be argued that religion just isn’t what it used to be; it no longer provides believable explanations for the phenomena that we as humans long to understand, such as the origin of the earth or even the origin of life itself. Nor can it provide feasible answers to questions such as â€Å"what is the meaning to life?† or â€Å"what is truly good?† So why is it that we no longer believe the answers and explanations provided by religion to be true (or even feasible)? Most of all, it’s the scientific processes allowed by vast technological advancement. Since the theories of Darwin, Galileo, Einstein, etc, which provide proof along with their explanations, the power of these old-age tales has been massively decreased whilst the urge to search for more and more scientific truths has rocketed. Although the advancement and application of science does not entirely rule out the possibility of a God (or intelligent designer), it does wash away the initial value of religion. Barely anyone believes in the tale of the earth being created in seven days, or that a man called Noah took two of every animal and put them on an arc whilst God caused forty days of floods or even that mankind begun with two people named Adam and Eve, so surely it would take a true idiot to believe in a heaven or hell and thus follow the moral values by which we should abide in order to avoid the misfortunate fate of ending up in â€Å"hell†. Could the idea of heaven and hell be something which is as beneficial to us as the advancement of science? The German philosopher Jurgen Habermas claims that religious thinking is the centre of a just and humane society; he states that things such as human rights and social order derive from Judeo-Christian thinking. â€Å"Even if society wanted to ‘outgrow’ religion, it would struggle to know where to go next.† This view is not dissimilar to that of Friedrich Nietzsche, who theorised that religion created ideas such as â€Å"sin† and thus guilt – which logically leads on to the fact that without the fears and rewards presented by religious teachings, humans would have very little reason to behave â€Å"morally† at all. So is it really the desire to hold society in this state of ‘morality’ and ‘social order’ that prevents the age-old tales religion from vanishing, or could it be something far closer to home? One could argue that religion is merely a means by which people find meaning and direction within their own lives. Organised religion provides us with a set of rules to live by and presents us with â€Å"rewards† for following them; we are given a sense of duty to fulfil our roles as humans by going good not only by others but by ourselves. Religion provides us with a sense of community, it lets us believe that there is a great man in the sky that is always there to listen; it creates a more realistic ‘ear’ in the form of church groups and other religion-based communities. Essentially it gives us the sense that we can do right, and that we can act in order to achieve the ‘ultimate individual goal’ – reaching heaven. Is reaching heaven really the ‘ultimate individual goal’ though? It seems entirely futile to waste potentially your only life aiming for something which may not even exist, and it makes no sense that we as people would be rewarded by God for spending our entire lives taking blind faith in something that we could only eschatologically verify. Looking at things from this point of view it seems that religion is not nourishing or useful to us as human beings, but in fact a complete hindrance. The vast amount of religions and the degrees by which they vary also creates a huge hindrance to us as a species; religion and the conflict between each separate one causes more bloodshed than anything else in the world. When people feel the need to violently attack each other in order to prove one God’s worth over another, and this is allowed (or even encouraged) by the rules within that religion it would seem that something is terribly wrong. It is also in this case that the promise of a heaven or hell for following the rules of religion is something which doesn’t benefit society, but instead leads individuals to believe that it is okay to commit homicide or suicide to fight for their cause, as God will still ‘love’ them. Essentially, religion is both a hindrance to us and a useful delusion. If only we could learn to take the â€Å"good bits† from religion such as the strong moral values, social order and general good will and learn to let go of some of the values that we really are beginning to outgrow – such as the things that science is now taking over – then religion would be of benefit to us all. Such an approach to religion could even take away the strength behind it that not only causes conflict and bloodshed, but causes us to potentially waste our lives by aiming for an afterlife that we cannot even guarantee exists. Either way, it seems that religion (and the values held within it) is going to be here for a long while yet.

Electronic marketing essay about How can the Internet and related

Electronic marketing about How can the Internet and related technologies assist organisations with creating customer value through personalisation and mass customisation - Essay Example Trial and error design is also a new tool in this case to check the user adaptability into a certain new product before getting it into the market in a fully fledged style. Normally the outcome is a perfectly designed product that gets appreciation from the users & consumers. The whole concept of mass customisation is that the users customise these products in their own ways. However; it is evident from this approach that if the user is not interested in the customisation of the certain product, then there is no need of customising it and pursuing through it. This essay will explain the relationship between the mass customisation strategies and the personalisation techniques which make up the basis for a customer to analyse the products in their own style and then help the companies make decisions regarding the empowerments and the use of technology. This actually empowers the customers to choose among different products by looking through them and feeling them in a way themselves, and making a selection through this process that leads to a successful product development in the market. This in turn influences the customers’ thinking patterns in terms of the product selection and then the right kind of product / item is chosen which brings along greater satisfaction and greater amount of self-motivation for the customers. And, also this way the customer take charge of what they are using by selection process. Personalisation concept was not implemented when it was first proposed almost thirty years back; however it is being applied now after so many years after the advent of IT and internet. Since the companies are using the internet more and more for their betterment and empowering the customers to make partial decisions on their behalves. Personalisation has recently become totally a part of ebusiness, as this concept indicates many things that the theorists and the practitioners would love to know about in

Racial profiling in the war on terrorism Research Paper

Racial profiling in the war on terrorism - Research Paper Example The racial profiling policy as a government activity directed on suspects of especially racial group has raised several ethical concerns both in America and in the rest of the world. The policy faces rejection from the advocates of equality in justice. Those rejecting racial profiling argue that the policy is unconstitutional and deprives equal treatment and protection of all people under one constitution. The policy allowed scrutiny and favoritism among different racial groups that exist in the America soil. Interviews conducted by law enforcement officials on foreigners’ especially foreign students in US colleges raised concerns on the moral issues. Following the December 2005 interviews on the students joining the US colleges, the local police chiefs reacted by resisting to cooperate with the federal officers terming the act as a violation of departmental policy and local state laws. The policy violates the civil and privacy rights of the passengers. The system requires the creation of stereotypes based on the existing information thus subjecting the communities such as the Arab and Muslim groups to scrutiny and suspicion. The Muslims group’s rights in America have been denied their equality right as American citizens based on the stereotyping policy raised by the racial profiling security system. Other than the Muslim communities, racial profiling focuses on black people as criminals rather than the victims of crime. The policy has underestimated the tendency of the white people to commit crimes the black people commit. This policy thus views the white people as victims of terrorism and ignores the poor blacks who are equally prone to terrorist attacks thus promoting the idea that blacks are immune to the terrorist attacks. The profiling policy promotes feelings of inferiority and superiority among the

Www.hl7.org Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Www.hl7.org - Assignment Example These terms have a special connotation in the HealthCare sector. Certification is essential factor for potential HL7 professionals as it enables them attain industry-recognized levels of knowledge and proficiency. Through tests, potential HL7 professionals are exposed and examine the current trends and emerging issues in the healthcare sector, a factor that augments their adeptness. The slogan â€Å"Unlocking the Power of Health Information† was formulated to harness the support of HIM professionals and everyone towards the elimination of ambiguity heath in information sharing and enhance interoperability and cooperative use of standards. It was also aimed at ensuring that health services are improved beyond the common deficient level. HIM professionals can participate in implementation and improvement of standards by equipping themselves and others with the appropriate knowledge that can help transform the healthcare sector. This can be accomplished by organizing training events, discussion forums and setting realistic

Consider bauman's idea that central features of modernity underpinned Essay

Consider bauman's idea that central features of modernity underpinned the possibility and actuality of the holocaust - Essay Example Out of job, Bauman had enough spare time in his hands and completed his masters in philosophy from Warsaw University where he remained as a lecturer till 1968. With the outbreak of public protests in Poland against the ruling communist government and subsequent fanning of anti-Semitic sentiments by the government to deflect public criticism, Bauman shifted to Leeds University after briefly teaching in Tel Aviv University. Bauman faced anti-Semitic sentiments twice in his life and both were from non-Nazi state machinery. This experience led him to form an opinion that modernity, bureaucracy and social exclusion creates a situation where an extreme phobia against those social groups that cannot be neatly categorised and slotted into predetermined and well established hierarchical superstructure prevalent in the society. This in essence is the beginning of a potential holocaust that will inevitably result if this xenophobic attitude towards those social sub-groups that cannot be effectively analysed according to existing social norms is not brought under control. Such social mores can be brought under control only if the authority is aware of the potential dangers and initiates strong measures to counter such a mass phobia against so-called outsiders. History, however, has witnessed several instances of cynical exploitation of the deep seated distrust among Europeans against so-called killers of Christ by governments of several European nations, Poland and Soviet Russia being the main culprits, to further their narrow and selfish class interests. Bauman has worked extensively on these issues where he has clearly laid bare the intrinsic interconnection between modern society where people wilfully forego several facets of personal freedom (both in the realm of actions and in thoughts) and the inherent distrust of the ‘outsider’ who does not conform to the established mores of the society. His contention is

Marketing plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 6

Marketing plan - Essay Example However, the company was acquired by Asher Budwig in the year 2011, but the brand name of Lola’s cupcakes continued to exist and the parent company decided to continue the business operations with the same vigour and focus on quality and design (Lola’s cupcakes, 2015b). The contemporary issues faced by the company are on the grounds of health issues. The cupcake and bakery industry has faced certain challenges owing to the changing consumer perception towards healthy diets. The rise in obesity rates in UK has made the customers to shift to food items with less sugar content or lower calorific value (BBC, 2014). Since, cupcakes have high quantity of sugar and can be considered to be a source of obesity so they have faced significant health issues. Moreover, from the point of view of the food consumption pattern of the customers it has been found that the customers, who prefer to eat halal, do not eat gelatinous cakes (Lola’s cupcakes, 2015a). Thus in order to target a wider range of customers Lola cupcakes need to offer a new range of products that offer non-gelatinous products. The target market of Lola cakes has been selected be all across London. The company has decided to target the customers based on their demographic and psychographic profile. The product category of bespoke designer cupcakes is targeted at the young population with the age group ranging in between 12-30 years. Based on the pricing of Lola cupcakes, the products are targeted at the middle and upper middle class of the society, which as a result allows the company to target a wide customer base (Lola’s cupcakes, 2015d). However, the narrow product offering also decreases the opportunity of the company to widen the customer base and target customers from several other demographic segments. The bespoke cupcakes are quite popular among the people with a â€Å"sweet tooth†, thus it can be stated that

International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International Business - Essay Example Unlike Asia Tile, Platinum manufactures tiles both for import and export. At first, Platinum exported their products mainly to the United States and to several other countries, such as China, Malaysia, and Vietnam. But, due to a change of demand for the tiles’ motive, PCI started to decrease their export to the United States. However, the revenue gained from exporting to the United States is not as much as the revenue achieved from exporting to Malaysia, Vietnam, and China. The raw materials needed to manufacture exporting goods to the United States are relatively scarce in Asia. As such, this has caused the production cost to increase as the price of the raw materials increase due to scarcity. This case has become a challenging issue. PCI also outsources several of their intermediate goods from countries around Asia. They import their glaze materials, as well as coloring materials from a company in China called China Glaze. PCI gets better quality for these materials for a si gnificantly better price. However, outsourcing goods from other countries have some significant disadvantages. It is time consuming, and sometimes the coloring materials do not properly match with what PCI needs. If PCI needs to produce a certain type or motive immediately, it will not be able to use the outsourced goods as they are very time consuming. John Koh stated that the process of outsourcing the intermediate goods can be a very complicated and tedious chore. There was one time where the goods (China Glaze) were rejected because it did not meet the standards of PCI’s expectations. Therefore, they had to ship it back to China for an exchange of the better quality products, though sometimes they may even have to remake the mixture of the coloring materials in order to match the original design (the percentage of which coloring materials to be used). Not only does this get complicated at times, but it can be very time consuming (it can take more than a month for the mate rials to be received). There is also a challenging issue when it comes to machineries. PCI bought most of their machines from Europe. Therefore, when the machine either malfunctions or breaks, it takes a few days for the technician to arrive from Europe. The machine’s company will not let one of PCI’s engineers study and fix the machines as the repairs require careful and professional attention. The consequence when a machine breaks down is a decrease in production for several days. Back then, Platinum Ceramics Industry was the leading ceramic tiles manufacturing company in Indonesia. But, due to an increase in competitors, it started to lose their market. To solve this issue, PCI decided to expand their company by building new factories to manufacture export goods. Some challenges PCI encountered building new factories were the risk of market failure, the need to find decent raw materials locally to minimize production cost, and the shipping costs. However, if the loc al raw materials did not meet the standard of export’s quality, then outsourcing intermediate goods would be required. The things that need to be observed and studied in this case are reflected in Michael Porter’s Diamond model. It discusses the significant factors that we should study in an international business. These factors are demand condition, related supporting industry, firm’s strategy, infrastructure and rivalry, factor condition, and government. Demand condition

Why Public Relations Professionals Should Use Facebook Essay

Why Public Relations Professionals Should Use Facebook - Essay Example Public relations professionals’ use of social media can have a direct impact on their personal and professional stock of social capital. Social media are not a substitute for face-to-face interaction implying that they are a compliment. Through social media, public relations professionals may develop personal relationships that they can utilize to provide benefits for their employers. Additionally, they may build public relationships between the organization they represent and those with whom they communicate (Duhà ©, 2007). Massachusetts-based writer Paul Gillian, author of the new influencers’; A Marketer’s Guide to the New Social Media, said, â€Å"...public relations professionals don’t have a choice. The average age of an evening news viewer now is 60, and there’s a segment of the population you have to reach that does not use those channels. But it (social media) gives the PR professional a greater chance of success because you are not dealing with the all-or-nothing proposition that was mainstream media† (Breakenridge & Solis, 2009). This clearly demonstrates how it is imperative that the PR profession should use social media in order to meet a wider population of their target group. Additionally, to PR Professionals, social media and networks have the advantage that they act as forms of proactive outbound customer service with a twist of social marketing. These networks engage customers on their turf, using their channels of communication, to help customers and potential customers solve problems and find information, or simply to engage them invaluable dialogue.   

Aspects of Contract and Neglegence for Business Essay Example for Free

Aspects of Contract and Neglegence for Business Essay INTRODUCTION This report focuses on the identification of the aspects of contract and negligence for business. There are agreements and contract in every business in recent than before. Verbal agreements are usually no longer used by the businesses. Written agreement in the form of contract is ore preferable to all. But, the profitability of contract is incomplete if the regulations and aspects are unknown. Well acknowledgement of contract in business provides a legal documentation securing the expectations of the parties involved. Contracts work as a safety tool of the resources. On the contrary, negligence is rising into the cornerstone of our system for compensating people for accidental damage and injuries. This is because it allows the courts to award damages in tort in some circumstances where it is not possible to do so in contract. This report will help learners to understand in and all about the contract formation and negligence of contract in businesses. LEARNING OBJECTIVES TASK 1 Understand the essential elements of a valid contract in a business context TASK 2 Be able to apply the elements of a contract in business situations TASK 3 Understand principles of liability in negligence in business activities TASK 4 Be able to apply the principles of liability in negligence in business situations. TASK 1 LO 1.1 Importance of the essential elements required for the formation of a valid contract Offer and Acceptance: The existence of an offer and an acceptance are a process of dissect the procedure of arrangement to decide whether an agreement has been created. Common consent of the parties is necessary of an agreement. Without an agreement, contract is impossible. Consideration: another vital element is consideration of the parties related to the contracted subject. Legal consideration makes the parties form a contract. Capacity: Both or all of the parties need to be capable to deal an agreement. Having mental disorder, under age etc. make incapacities to form a contract. Consent: The understanding would be invalid, if the part doesn’t come without consent. Consent means willingness of the parties. It  might be influenced by several issues. Certainty: It is needed to the subject of the contract be certain. Uncertainty creates ambiguity in the contract. Lawfulness: The subject is important to come into deal or contract legally. Otherwise, it won’t be count as a contract according to the law. LO 1.2 Impact of different types of contract Bilateral and Unilateral Contracts If two parties exchange a shared and equal guarantee that ensures the execution of a gesture, a commitment or a transaction or avoidance from execution of a demonstration or a commitment, concerning each gathering included in the agreement, is called as bilateral contract in the aspects of law. It is also called as a two-sided contract. Unilateral contract is a guarantee provided by one and only gathering. The offeror who offers, guarantees to execute a certain gesture or a commitment if the offeree who accepts the offer, coincides on performing an act that is seen as a lawfully enforceable contract. It usually asks for an acknowledgement from the other gathering to get the agreement executed. As a result, it is an imbalanced contract since just the offeror is certain to the court of law nor the offeree. An important objective of this type of agreement is that, the offeree cant be sued for refraining, forsaking or actually neglecting to execute his demonstration, since he doesnt guar antee anything. If two parties trades a mutual and reciprocal promise that implicates the execution of an act, refraining, abandoning or even failing to execute his act, since he does not promise anything. LO 1.3 Terms in contracts with reference to their meaning and effect CONDITIONS A condition is an important matter of subject which is considered as the basic to the main cause for the formation of agreement. A breach of condition qualifies the harmed party for denying the agreement. WARRANTIES Warranty is a less essential but unavoidable term. It is count as a must to the agreement as it is not fundamental. A warranty gives the harmed party the right to claim harms and the claimed party cant revoke the agreement. INTERMEDIATE TERMS It is tough to define a term appropriately before time as either a condition or a warranty. A few issues may include a moderate position, in that the term could be surveyed as the outcomes of a break. Considering that a rupture of the term brings about extreme harm, the harmed party will be qualified for coercing the agreement where the break includes minor misfortune, the harmed party’s cures will be limited to harm. TASK 2 LO 2.1 Application of the elements of contract In the law of contract, the offer and acceptance is so conventional and significant. The principles of offer and acceptance include a standard offer, acceptance and correspondence around the two or more parties or people making the agreement is significant. In the given business scenario, it is noticeable that the examples of forming an agreement is when Mr. John was responded the duty of assuring new PC framework. He decided to buy from Best Computers, and marked a business concurrence with that organization for the supply of new machine frameworks. In business concurrence with Best Computers, the terms and conditions of the agreement were not clear enough, and Mr. John signed that contract without a bit regard for the all aspects of the assertion, which created a misery for him and few days later when they neglected to supply the machines on time and most of them were harmed. That happened because of the contractual subjects were not checked properly. The offer must be unequivocal and immediate to an alternate party to contract. LO 2.2 Application of the law on terms in different contracts The Sale of Goods Act-1979 can be applied in the case of the case between Linda Green and the wholesaler. The act can be applied in the case in the following ways: If Linda Green wants a claim under the Sale of Goods Act, she has several possible ways of resolving the issue depending on the circumstances and on what she wants to be done. Well here the rights are against the wholesaler not the manufacturer as the seller was liable because of the wrong supply of product. The Sale of Goods Act 1979 gives the right to the buyer to get replaced, repaired or refunded if the goods are faulty and it is returned in the time as per the law provides that is 3-4 weeks after purchase depending on the type and nature of the faulty product. So  Linda Green can reject it and get a refund in stipulated time. The retailer must repair or replace faulty goods within a reasonable time. If don’t, Linda will be entitled to claim either a reduction on the purchase price or recision. If the retailer refuses, then the compensation can be claimed by repairing it by someone else and collect the amount ther e of (Simon and Gillian, 2005). But Linda’s claims end up in court, and then she has to prove that the fault was present when she bought the item  and it wasn’t the result of normal wear and tear. But if it is beyond six months, expert opinion is required to prove the faulty product. So given the following situations, Linda Green can easily succeed in claiming for the faulty goods. LO 2.3 Effects of different terms A proper evaluation of the effects of different terms is necessary to proceed with the contract. Here, a situation was given where some terms are noticeable. The followings are some of the terms of Johns contract with the Best Computers: The seller will not carry the risk for any damage or misfortune occurred by any flaw in workstation. Parties are able to cancel the request through a former notice of three days without acquiring any obligation for any misfortune. Value paid by clients is not returnable by the organization at the cancellation of the agreement. These are some essential terms included in John’s contract with the Best Computers. The organization should have been obligated to guarantee the safety of furnishing right machines or any available items without any mischief. The organization should have been responsible to answer for any occurrence. But conditions should be included in the understanding of the agreement. Creating legitimate framework of the cancellation of agreement is moreover imperative throughout the given contract, but making some terms unnoticed is not lawful, all the terms and conditions involved in an agreement must be well defined and clear enough. TASK 3 LO 3.1 Liability in tort with contractual liability There are some significant differences exist in between the liability in tort and contractual liability. Some among of them are as: †¢ Contractual  obligations are willingly done but tortuous obligations are implemented by law. Contractual obligations give a free choice to enter in a contractual relationship but tortuous obligations provide no choices. †¢ a person is liable to pay or owes a duty only to the contracted party but liabilities in tort means that a person is liable to owe duty to all as not to defame or trespass other’s property. †¢ A historical difference of formation exists in these two. The contractual liability is created from three parts of actions as debt, covenant and sumps while the liabilities in tort are derived from the right of trespass. †¢ Usually liability in contract is strict and unavoidable once formed but the tortuous liability is based on fault. Any fault comes into account in the tortuous liability. It is more like common for everybody of a certain matter. The liability in tort is always paid lame care while the liability in contract is not at all. LO 3.2 Nature of liability in negligence In the given situation, the management of the organization is liable for the harms and injuries caused by the slippery floor of their office and they should also be considerable enough to consider themselves reliable for the damages or harms caused due the faults in their products. Strict obligation is risk without flaw. Recollect strict risk is not categorical obligation and is worth researching of the law on this zone. As depicted prior that tortuous obligation rotates around obligations settled by law. While strict risk is a standard for obligation which may exist in either by a criminal or civil connection. A rule defining strict obligation makes an individual legitimately answerable for the harm and misfortune brought on by his or her enactments and oversights paying little heed to culpability. In the given situation the administration of Best Computer is answerable for the damages and wounds brought about by the tricky floor of their office, and they might as well likewise be s ufficient to view themselves as dependable for the harms or damages initiated due the issues in their items. LO 3.3 Concept and elements of vicarious liability Vicarious liability Vicarious liability refers liability for the torts of others. It arises due to a relationship between the parties. It is a doctrine of English tort law  that imposes strict liability on employers for the wrongdoings of their employees. Generally, an employer will be held liable for any tort committed while an employee is conducting their duties. The vicarious liability provisions of the legislation are only applicable where the alleged discrimination and harassment occurs in connection with the person’s employment. This means the employer may be held vicariously liable for the actions of employees if they have not taken all reasonable steps to prevent the discrimination and harassment from occurring both within the usual work environment and at employer events, such as sponsored seminars, conferences, work functions, Christmas parties, business or field trips. An employer may be vicariously liable for the conduct of: individual employees or groups of employees directors, supervisors or managers workplace participants agents contract workers or people being paid commission a partner of a company harassing another partner Liability of individuals The vicarious liability provisions of the legislation do not preclude individual persons from being held liable for their own discriminatory or harassing behavior in the workplace or in connection with their employment. It may be that both the employer, who has been found to have not taken all reasonable steps to prevent the discrimination and harassment from occurring, and the individual, who is the alleged discriminator or harasser, will be held jointly liable for the behavior. TASK 4 LO 4.1 Application of the elements of the tort of negligence There are several components of negligence that obliges that an offended party illustrates the accompanying four variables. They are: The litigant owed an obligation to the offended party The litigant abused that obligation As a consequence of the respondents violation of that obligation, the  offended party endured damage The damage was a sensibly predictable result of the litigants activity or inaction In this situation, the innocence is happened when number of people slipped at floor of the Best Computer office. In fact, they may as well inform the wet floor and show people entering to their office premises. LO 4.2 Application of the elements of vicarious liability It is obligatory for the occupier of premises to guarantee the health and security of the individuals working there. In the given situation it was obligation of the Best Computers to guarantee that their office premises are sheltered for its specialists. The risk appropriate in the given situation will be direct liability on the grounds that the administration is specifically obligated for the wounds created at their premises. CONCLUSION It is hoped that this report clarify its purposes of defining and demonstrating the contract and terms and conditions of contract. It also expresses an enough illustration of negligence which is a key fact to the contract. Whatsoever, parties involved within an agreement or contract need to have an well understanding of contract and negligence for every day business dealings which is mentioned in a suitable way in this report. REFERENCES Andrew Burrows,Ewan McKendrick,James Edelman (2007). Cases and materials on the law of restitution 2nd Edition. New York: Oxford University. BPP Professional Education, (2004). Mandatory Unit 5 Common Law I supporting foundation degrees. West Midlands, England: W M Print. Rose, Nelson (2003). Gambling and the Law: Status of Gambling Laws. California: Whittier Law School. MacMilan C. and Stone R., 2012, Elements of a Contract, London University Press. Atiyah P. S., 2000, An Introduction to the Law of Contract, Clarendon. Beatson J., 2010, A Burrows and J Cartwright, Ansons Law of Contract. OUP (ed 29), London Press. McKendrick E., 2009, Contract Law (ed 4), Palgrave. Peel E. and Treitel G. H., 2011, Treitel on the Law of Contract (ed 13). Sweet and Maxwell. Simon D and Gillian M., 2005., Labour Law, UK. Department of employment and learning, 2004, Individual right of employees, Employment booklet series, UK. Mathews B., 2002, Employer Employee Relationship, Department of labor publications, UK. Wedderburn K. W., 1986, The Worker and the Law (ed 3), Harmondsworth, UK. The Sale of Goods Act, 1979 (online) Available at. Accessed at 9th July, 2014. The Consumer Credit Act-1974. Availabe at Accessed at 9th July, 2014.

Broadcasting of the BBC Documentary The Secret Policeman Essay Example for Free

Broadcasting of the BBC Documentary The Secret Policeman Essay On Tuesday 21st October 2003, the BBCs documentary The Secret Policeman was broadcast to approximately 5 million viewers in Britain. Mark Daly, an undercover reporter had spent seven months posing as a fellow trainee at the Bruche National Training Centre in Cheshire to film an exposà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ on racism among police recruits. The film not only provided evidence of police racism but also highlighted the stereotypical representations of Black identity within Western ideology. In this essay I propose to investigate how the British medias representation of Blacks has, rather than reflecting reality, constructed it. My research predominantly focuses on evidence gathered from racial reports and theories of the 1980s until the present day and examines the development, if any, within race representation in the media. Pre-1980s case studies are generally omitted because of the rapid development of discussion of racial issues as a reaction to the brutal riots of that decade. Additionally, the institutional and individual stereotyping revealed within The Secret Policeman can be directly related to prevalent issues specifically within the media of the previous two decades. Controversially, I ultimately aim to depict The Secret Policeman as a symbol of advancement in Black representation within Britain. The use of the term Black bastard and Nigger isnt racist The Secret Policemans inclusion of a clip of racist remarks by the Police Federations Representative in 1983 is an accurate reflection of the racial turmoil that Britains Institutions and communities were in. Black lawlessness was an image that dominated the Press reporting on riots from 1980 85. A predominantly Black riot against at Bristols police force in 1980 was followed by further confrontational outbreaks in 1981. The first two years of riots gained Britains (particularly young) West Indian community the reputation for being notorious for muggings, assaults and murders2 but nonetheless presented a slight initial interest into the awareness of the underlying causes. The scale of Britains urban unrest between these years varied considerably but the sequence of violence after 1980 forced the political agenda to include an examination of the origins of the protests. The Press employed Brixton (1981) to highlight the need for enhanced Government economic policies; As we condemn th e senseless terror we also condemn the deep seated social problemswhich spawned them. From 1983 to 1985 Britains poor and predominantly West Indian and Asian neighbourhoods experienced social disturbances, as was the case in 1981. Once more, the media endorsed the riots as the criminal acts of black, inner-city youths but this time they were not linked to ethnic inequality, oppression or socio-economic frustration but only to the Blacks position in society and their undermining of the law and cultural traditions of the minority communities themselves. The British presss reaction to the prominence of riots particularly during 1985 was to decline both generally to examine the reasons for them and specifically to consider ethnical inequality as a cause. Subjects of immigration, housing, employment, social facilities and race relations within the civic authorities that were central to the causes of the urban violence, were abandoned for crude simplifications that represented Blacks as the sole initiators of the violence. The criminal identity with which the media had labe lled Blacks was not wholly fictitious. Anecdotal evidence of provocative quotes and repetition of unreliable stories would always operate within a dominant regime of truth4. Crimes involving Blacks were given disproportionate coverage that suggested a behavioural generalisation that would never be suggested of Whites. Stereotyping was not the only form of racism; more covertly the press would exclude or misconstrue statistics such as those that showed Blacks to be twice as likely to be out of work as their counterparts. The coverage of Tottenhams 1985 riot gave less publicity to the death of a lack woman than the ensuing disturbances in which a police constable was murdered. The policemans role as a victim totally overshadowed the mourning of the aggressor that the Black fatality was consigned to. The perspective within which coloured people are presented as ordinary members of society has become increasingly overshadowed by a news perspective in which they are presented as a problem. Teun. A. Van Dijk was highly influenced by Hartmann and Husbands early study of racism in the press which concluded the above labelling of Blacks. According to Van Dijk the riots were topicalized in a style recognisable across the entire media front; the event, the causes and the consequences. Contrary to using these journalistic traits to investigate all areas of the riots, Britains media manipulated it as a means of reporting on selective data. The event was described as the attacks of mobs of black youths; in order to maintain the stimulus once the disturbance was over the primary definition of the cause of the riots was in terms of Black criminality in preference to the inner city conditions. Finally, the exoneration of Institutional Britain was enabled through the reports focus into future containment, policing and inquiries. The report pattern of Black mob, Black crime and Black prevention was typical of a whole generations instinctive approach to Black Britain. The medias resp onse to the 1980s riots created and regurgitated images of Black male criminals. Blacks in non-race stories were not considered newsworthy. Encouragingly by the 1980s Black was on the political agenda; however by 1985 it had been relegated from the social issue some commentators had perceived, via a social problem to a social evil. If the medias hegemonic reports and editorials in the 1980s were classed as a barely disguised belief in White supremacy, The Secret Policeman strangely that that attitude to Blacks is as strong today as ever it was then. Im a firm believer that Pakis create racism. Most Asians carry knives. The thing in London is, the majority of street robbery is Black In 1982 the Commission for Racial Equality published the first code of practice on eliminating discrimination and promoting equal opportunities, which was speedily identified by a Daily Telegraph editorial as bossy nonsense. Arguably the code of practice was counter-productive. Attacks on anti-racist and equal rights movements were at their height during the period of 1983 to 1986, when Black became Britains pretext for social disturbances. Resistance towards such movements was accused of stirring racial tension through excessive political correctness. For much of the press, racism was a manufactured problem of the anti-racist left, found in social science research programmes, anti-racist projects and multi-cultural education. The anti-racist social learning process created accusations of anti-English indoctrination thus posing a threat to White elitism, dominance and control. Thatchers Institutionally right-wing Britain defined itself as a protagonist of the attacks from the left th at they believed favoured special treatment of multicultural Britain. Significantly, the immediate Government response to The Secret Policeman undercover investigation was given by the home secretary David Blunkett, who criticised the BBC for their intent to create, not report, a storyas a covert stunt to get attention According to the Guardians most recent statistics, ethnic minorities make up 9% of the UKs population. In more urban areas such as Greater Manchester where The Secret Policeman was filmed, this percentage is believed to reach figures as high as 30%. However, the documentary showed Warrington police training base to consist of 118 white and one Asian recruit. Notably, Black people in are massively under-represented in Parliament. New Western societies still show many forms of institutional and everyday discrimination that David Blunkett arguably hoped to dismiss with a similar response to the 1980s critical analysis of racist exposs. Over a month before The Secret Policeman was broadcast, John Gieve, the permanent Secretary at the Home Office wrote to the BBC a letter that they described as unprecedented pressure to bully them into withdrawing the programme. The chief constable of Greater Manchester Police also intimidated the BBC with the threat of a Hutton-style inquiry that could d estroy the BBCs relationship with the police. Mark Dalys work within the police force was cut short when arrested on suspicion of deception and damaging police property; charges were dropped when embarrassingly for the police, the public were informed of the institutional racism. The Observer newspaper considered the Whitehall and police resistance worthy of its front-page headline Home Office tried to axe BBC police race expos. Headlines are carefully devised as a pithy synopsis of the story. They quickly impart knowledge in a way which facilitates both understanding and recall. The headlines of news reports about ethnic affairs summarize events that the medias white academics, teachers, writers and political activists define as relevant to white and black readers interests. The medias manipulation of headlines dramatized the 1980s anti-racism only to emphasise the Western ideology of Black negativity. For example the Telegraphs conspicuous headline bossy nonsense clearly established the tedium felt by the author towards the issue of tackling racism. The Observers recent negative portrayal of institutional antagonists of anti-racism reveals a positive shift from the medias earlier resentment towards the anti-racist movements. So what is the ideological impli cation of the shift from 1980s resentment to the Observers stance? How is the exposure of racism in todays society a sign of improved race-relations? Who is to blame for todays existing racism? Is it the BBCs fault this has happened? BBC Radio One questioned both the responsibility of the police and the media in the revelation of The Secret Policeman. Radio One criticised the constable of North Wales for his reference to the hysteria related to terrorism, extremist Muslims and asylum as the rationale for increased racist views. Blaming society, it commented, was no option for police professionals who should concentrate on training and challenge prejudice15. Is the BBCs accusation equitable or is pardoning society a means of pardoning the media to ultimately pardon itself? How we are seen determines in part how we are treated; how we treat others is based on how we see them; such seeing comes from representation.16 Traditionally founded on Reithian ideas of independence, access and expression, the BBC aimed to inform, educate and entertain the masses. The BBC devised itself an identity as the national cultural institution that would represent Britains public through Britains voice. In a statement following the arrest of Mark Daly, the BBC reflected the all-purpose mission they were founded upon: We believe this to be a matter of significant public interest17. The BBC, in essence, the media, is a powerful realm of social whiteness that manipulates the patterns of inter-elite communication. The ethnic minorities in Britain even today remain concentrated in relatively few areas. As a result huge numbers of the White majority rely almost exclusively on the media for knowledge of issues concerning their Black counterparts. The formations and continuance of White attitudes are therefore highly reliant upon the medias portrayal of race-relations; most frequently found in the news. The news is an every day routine structure, and in literal terms can be defined as a classical realist text. However, Nichols recognises that the reality of news takes precedence over the news of reality18, thus enabling it to empower, or dis-empower its subject. In these terms the subject is Black and the empowerment is integral to the serious issue of Black nationhood and identity. When reality is represented, its former unequivocal status becomes ambiguous; news is static but its context is not. For example, patterns of race reporting can attach themselves to the wider subjects of Black British existence, a procedure that Sarita Malik terms leitmotif. During the 1980s riots, the Black identity was frequently referred to in terms of former race-related violence. Leitmotifs thus manipulated the reality to familiarise the White-eye with often-unrelated parables of Black anger that consequently created a distorted mis-information about the original conflict. In contrast, representing reality can be equal ly deceitful through a negation of context. The news according to Malik is best at representing what and why but regularly fails to recognise the socio-political reasoning behind it. In terms of race relations of the last two decades Britains media tends to focus excessively on the wider context of Black struggle yet too seldom on the social context that fuels this struggle. The BBCs decision to resist Governmental and Federal pressures and broadcast The Secret Policeman implied a positive shift in its allegiance to the White ruling classes. Although this documentary was yet another portrayal of the problem-orientated Black, uniquely the revolting19 and Appalling, racist revelations20 were more optimistically acknowledged as White. The television documentary is based on questions of identity that engage with the construction of relationships between subject, audience and the camera or narrator. The cinematography is used as a tool of authority in which the spectator is lured into believing they are a observing a record of untouched and immediate reality. But reality, as clarified previously, can be more ambiguous than anticipated. In fact, the illusion that a documentary allows the subject to speak for itself without moralising or judging is, like the news, a powerful status to possess. Documentaries are the most likely genre to directly address socio-political affairs and on the rare occasion of the medias attention to multicultural development it is most probable they will be used. Unfortunately, documentaries of the 1950s were emotive, sentimental and practically vague and similarly. The 1960s gave little hope for a genre increasingly lacking in sensitivity and awareness towards the Black subject. In contrast to the pathos of the 1950s White pity toward Blacks, the 1960s employed tones of hostility, fear and conflict. Thus, the erratic history of the socialist documentary was influential and manipulative towards the enhancement of Governmental attacks that ran adjacent to the anti-racist campaigns of the 1980s. The development of light and cheap video recording equipment has made the video diary an accessible and extremely popular style of documentary since the late 1990s; a development that enabled the BBC to produce The Secret Policeman. Improved camera technology initiated independent film-making and in effect greater social analysis during the 1990s, but this was not the only continuity in televisions social eye. Governmental, cultural and economic forces were evolving towards todays individualistic, consumerist and multicultural society; television had to ke ep pace. The documentary shifted from social generalisations to pluralism and for the first time society was eclipsed by individualism and lifestyle. Although the 1990s showed much resistance to an increasingly cross-cultural and mixed-race Britain, the definition of society and Britishness undoubtedly required re-examination. Isnt it good how memories dont fade? He [Steven Lawrence] fucking deserved it and his mum and dad are a fucking pair of spongers. PC Rob Pullings acclamation of the murderers and derision of the family of black student Steven Lawrence shocked viewers of The Secret Policeman. Lawrences mother was particularly disheartened, stating, that, after all this time, people still held those views.22 The stereotyping of Black people as spongers or scroungers is one that was upheld and confirmed during the rioting period of the 1980s. The Diasporas posed a threat to Britain as a consequence of its deficiency in resources and increasing immigration numbers. In 1968 Enoch Powell suggested a much favoured but conclusively rejected topic relatable to Thatchers new 1980s, right wing government; that of repatriation. Repatriation essentially warned Blacks to behave or go home. Powell returned to his theme in the wake of the 1985 Handsworth riots to create a climate of racist opinion. Immigration had become among the most prominent Press subjects, during which, one tabloid claimed that immigrants cost the taxpayer billions of pou nds. Black people were constituted as the welfare states problem that added to taxation through an exploitation of the White supremacist welfare state. In 1984, the News of the World printed the headline à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½476 a week for waiter Abdul. The Daily Mail picked up on this story, printing a day later; Jobless Abdullife of luxury in hotelsat the taxpayers expense.24 The actuality of this story is that the 476 payment that was referred to was an inclusive sum covering the cost of housing Abdul, his wife and his six children. More interestingly, Abdul Bari was a British citizen. In 1999, six years after the Lawrence incident, Sir William Macpherson undertook a high profile investigation into the racism and discrimination in the Metropolitan Police Force.His Report coined the phrase institutional racism. This triggered discussions of discrimination within Britains leading institutions: the police, the media, the education system and the government. Following the Lawrence enquiry huge numbers of police were forced to undertake intensive training in racial equality and similar, revised programmes are ongoing today. One police force in Britain sent 40 000 employees on race training days within the last year, but Pullings overt racism raises questions of the efficacy of the Home Offices current strategy of challenging prejudice. In the concluding chapter of her book Representing Black in Britain, Sarita Malik makes a discouragingly negative, albeit honest assertion that the accepted sentiment that racist Britain is in decline is somewhat false. By this, she suggests that racism in the media, as in other public sectors, has merely been concealed. Malik proposed that truthful representations could emerge only through more diverse, aesthetically innovative and accurate portrayals of Blacks. More relevantly to The Secret Policeman, Malik highlighted the need for a rethink of the constituent parts that compose Britains media: resources, employment and ultimately its national heritage. Whilst the number of Blacks and ethnic minorities on British television has increased dramatically particularly in urban based soaps such as Holby City and Eastenders the production teams and editors continue to favour Whites. My premise that The Secret Policemen established an interesting relationship with the development of Brit ish media was formed whilst listening to a Radio Four news programme. It suggested that The Secret Policeman provided hard evidence that racism had gone underground. The programme concluded that although the police understood the shoulds and shouldnts of racial procedures, impartiality was never entrenched in their hearts and minds. Consistently with my research, the social learning process of the media has potentially played a huge role in PC Pullings racist prejudices and discrimination. Racism is not innate after all; it is learned. So how is it that I feel confident to propose The Secret Policeman as evidence of enhanced race-relations within the media? The role of the media is not isolated, but connected in numerous ways to the elites in general; this time it stood alone. The BBC assumed the role of the anti-racist and confronted the majority. The Secret Policeman exposed to huge public numbers, the long-standing stereotypes of the ruling-race and gave scope for investigating the origins of such beliefs. More positively the documentary received instant and drastic responses from both the public and the institutions. The Home Office immediately introduced plans for new police integrity tests and understood the need for societal change. The medias willingness to scrutinise and criticise the racism revealed in The Secret Policeman marked a complete reversal from the attacks on anti-racism evident in the 1980s. The Secret Policeman has served a distinctive purpose. It has illustrated what has long been apparent but too rarely admitted; White power is dangerously flawed. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ferguson, Robert. Representing Race, 1998. Arnold: London Gordon, Paul Rosenberg, David. The Press and black people in Britain, 1989. Runnymede Trust: Nottingham Malik, Sarita. Representing Black in Britain, 2002. Sage: London Solomos, John. Race and Racism in Contemporary Britain, 1989. Macmillan: London Troyna, Barry. Public awareness and the media, 1981. Commission for Racial Equality: London Van Dijk, Tuen A. Racism and the Press, 1991. Routledge: London and New York

The Taguchi Methods for Quality Improvement

The Taguchi Methods for Quality Improvement INTRODUCTION: Taguchi methods are statistical methods developed by Genichi Taguchi to improve the quality of manufactured goods, and more recently also applied to, engineering, biotechnology, marketing and advertising. Professional statisticians have welcomed the goals and improvements brought about by Taguchi methods, particularly by Taguchis development of designs for studying variation, but have criticized the inefficiency of some of Taguchis proposals. Taguchis work includes three principal contributions to statistics: A specific loss function see Taguchi loss function; The philosophy of off-line quality control; and Innovations in the design of experiments. Loss functions Loss functions in statistical theory Traditionally, statistical methods have relied on mean-unbiased estimators of treatment effects: Under the conditions of the Gauss-Markov theorem, least squares estimators have minimum variance among all mean-unbiased estimators. The emphasis on comparisons of means also draws (limiting) comfort from the law of large numbers, according to which the sample means converge to the true mean. Fishers textbook on the design of experiments emphasized comparisons of treatment means. Gauss proved that the sample-mean minimizes the expected squared-error loss-function (while Laplace proved that a median-unbiased estimator minimizes the absolute-error loss function). In statistical theory, the central role of the loss function was renewed by the statistical decision theory of Abraham Wald. However, loss functions were avoided by Ronald A. Fisher.[6] Taguchis use of loss functions Taguchi knew statistical theory mainly from the followers of Ronald A. Fisher, who also avoided loss functions. Reacting to Fishers methods in the design of experiments, Taguchi interpreted Fishers methods as being adapted for seeking to improve the mean outcome of a process. Indeed, Fishers work had been largely motivated by programmes to compare agricultural yields under different treatments and blocks, and such experiments were done as part of a long-term programme to improve harvests. However, Taguchi realised that in much industrial production, there is a need to produce an outcome on target, for example, to machine a hole to a specified diameter, or to manufacture a cell to produce a given voltage. He also realised, as had Walter A. Shewhart and others before him, that excessive variation lay at the root of poor manufactured quality and that reacting to individual items inside and outside specification was counterproductive. He therefore argued that quality engineering should start with an understanding of quality costs in various situations. In much conventional industrial engineering, the quality costs are simply represented by the number of items outside specification multiplied by the cost of rework or scrap. However, Taguchi insisted that manufacturers broaden their horizons to consider cost to society. Though the short-term costs may simply be those of non-conformance, any item manufactured away from nominal would result in some loss to the customer or the wider community through early wear-out; difficulties in interfacing with other parts, themselves probably wide of nominal; or the need to build in safety margins. These losses are externalities and are usually ignored by manufacturers, which are more interested in their private costs than social costs. Such externalities prevent markets from operating efficiently, according to analyses of public economics. Taguchi argued that such losses would in evitably find their way back to the originating corporation (in an effect similar to the tragedy of the commons), and that by working to minimise them, manufacturers would enhance brand reputation, win markets and generate profits. Such losses are, of course, very small when an item is near to negligible. Donald J. Wheeler characterised the region within specification limits as where we deny that losses exist. As we diverge from nominal, losses grow until the point where losses are too great to deny and the specification limit is drawn. All these losses are, as W. Edwards Deming would describe them, unknown and unknowable, but Taguchi wanted to find a useful way of representing them statistically. Taguchi specified three situations: Larger the better (for example, agricultural yield); Smaller the better (for example, carbon dioxide emissions); and On-target, minimum-variation (for example, a mating part in an assembly). The first two cases are represented by simple monotonic loss functions. In the third case, Taguchi adopted a squared-error loss function for several reasons: It is the first symmetric term in the Taylor series expansion of real analytic loss-functions. Total loss is measured by the variance. As variance is additive (for uncorrelated random variables), the total loss is an additive measurement of cost (for uncorrelated random variables). The squared-error loss function is widely used in statistics, following Gausss use of the squared-error loss function in justifying the method of least squares. Reception of Taguchis ideas by statisticians Though many of Taguchis concerns and conclusions are welcomed by statisticians and economists, some ideas have been especially criticized. For example, Taguchis recommendation that industrial experiments maximise some signal-to-noise ratio (representing the magnitude of the mean of a process compared to its variation) has been criticized widely. Off-line quality control Taguchis rule for manufacturing Taguchi realized that the best opportunity to eliminate variation is during the design of a product and its manufacturing process. Consequently, he developed a strategy for quality engineering that can be used in both contexts. The process has three stages: System design Parameter design Tolerance design System design This is design at the conceptual level, involving creativity and innovation. Parameter design Once the concept is established, the nominal values of the various dimensions and design parameters need to be set, the detail design phase of conventional engineering. Taguchis radical insight was that the exact choice of values required is under-specified by the performance requirements of the system. In many circumstances, this allows the parameters to be chosen so as to minimise the effects on performance arising from variation in manufacture, environment and cumulative damage. This is sometimes called robustification. Tolerance design With a successfully completed parameter design, and an understanding of the effect that the various parameters have on performance, resources can be focused on reducing and controlling variation in the critical few dimensions (see Pareto principle). Design of experiments Taguchi developed his experimental theories independently. Taguchi read works following R. A. Fisher only in 1954. Taguchis framework for design of experiments is idiosyncratic and often flawed, but contains much that is of enormous value. He made a number of innovations. Outer arrays Taguchis designs aimed to allow greater understanding of variation than did many of the traditional designs from the analysis of variance (following Fisher). Taguchi contended that conventional sampling is inadequate here as there is no way of obtaining a random sample of future conditions.[7] In Fishers design of experiments and analysis of variance, experiments aim to reduce the influence of nuisance factors to allow comparisons of the mean treatment-effects. Variation becomes even more central in Taguchis thinking. Taguchi proposed extending each experiment with an outer array (possibly an orthogonal array); the outer array should simulate the random environment in which the product would function. This is an example of judgmental sampling. Many quality specialists have been using outer arrays. Later innovations in outer arrays resulted in compounded noise. This involves combining a few noise factors to create two levels in the outer array: First, noise factors that drive output lower, and second, noise factors that drive output higher. Compounded noise simulates the extremes of noise variation but uses fewer experimental runs than would previous Taguchi designs. Management of interactions Interactions, as treated by Taguchi Many of the orthogonal arrays that Taguchi has advocated are saturated arrays, allowing no scope for estimation of interactions. This is a continuing topic of controversy. However, this is only true for control factors or factors in the inner array. By combining an inner array of control factors with an outer array of noise factors, Taguchis approach provides full information on control-by-noise interactions, it is claimed. Taguchi argues that such interactions have the greatest importance in achieving a design that is robust to noise factor variation. The Taguchi approach provides more complete interaction information than typical fractional factorial designs, its adherents claim. * Followers of Taguchi argue that the designs offer rapid results and that interactions can be eliminated by proper choice of quality characteristics. That notwithstanding, a confirmation experiment offers protection against any residual interactions. If the quality characteristic represents the energy transformation of the system, then the likelihood of control factor-by-control factor interactions is greatly reduced, since energy is additive. Inefficencies of Taguchis designs * Interactions are part of the real world. In Taguchis arrays, interactions are confounded and difficult to resolve. Statisticians in response surface methodology (RSM) advocate the sequential assembly of designs: In the RSM approach, a screening design is followed by a follow-up design that resolves only the confounded interactions that are judged to merit resolution. A second follow-up design may be added, time and resources allowing, to explore possible high-order univariate effects of the remaining variables, as high-order univariate effects are less likely in variables already eliminated for having no linear effect. With the economy of screening designs and the flexibility of follow-up designs, sequential designs have great statistical efficiency. The sequential designs of response surface methodology require far fewer experimental runs than would a sequence of Taguchis designs.[ TAGUCHI METHODS There has been a great deal of controversy about Genichi Taguchis methodology since it was first introduced in the United States. This controversy has lessened considerably in recent years due to modifications and extensions of his methodology. The main controversy, however, is still about Taguchis statistical methods, not about his philosophical concepts concerning quality or robust design. Furthermore, it is generally accepted that Taguchis philosophy has promoted, on a worldwide scale, the design of experiments for quality improvement upstream, or at the product and process design stage. Taguchis philosophy and methods support, and are consistent with, the Japanese quality control approach that asserts that higher quality generally results in lower cost. This is in contrast to the widely prevailing view in the United States that asserts that quality improvement is associated with higher cost. Furthermore, Taguchis philosophy and methods support the Japanese approach to move quality improvement upstream. Taguchis methods help design engineers build quality into products and processes. As George Box, Soren Bisgaard, and Conrad Fung observed: Today the ultimate goal of quality improvement is to design quality into every product and process and to follow up at every stage from design to final manufacture and sale. An important element is the extensive and innovative use of statistically designed experiments. TAGUCHIS DEFINITION OF QUALITY The old traditional definition of quality states quality is conformance to specifications. This definition was expanded by Joseph M. Juran (1904-) in 1974 and then by the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) in 1983. Juran observed that quality is fitness for use. The ASQC defined quality as the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy given needs. Taguchi presented another definition of quality. His definition stressed the losses associated with a product. Taguchi stated that quality is the loss a product causes to society after being shipped, other than losses caused by its intrinsic functions. Taguchi asserted that losses in his definition should be restricted to two categories: (1) loss caused by variability of function, and (2) loss caused by harmful side effects. Taguchi is saying that a product or service has good quality if it performs its intended functions without variability, and causes little loss through harmful side effects, including the cost of using it. It must be kept in mind here that society includes both the manufacturer and the customer. Loss associated with function variability includes, for example, energy and time (problem fixing), and money (replacement cost of parts). Losses associated with harmful side effects could be market shares for the manufacturer and/or the physical effects, such as of the drug thalidomide, for the consumer. Consequently, a company should provide products and services such that possible losses to society are minimized, or, the purpose of quality improvement is to discover innovative ways of designing products and processes that will save society more than they cost in the long run. The concept of reliability is appropriate here. The next section will clearly show that Taguchis loss function yields an operational definition of the term loss to society in his definition of quality. TAGUCHIS LOSS FUNCTION We have seen that Taguchis quality philosophy strongly emphasizes losses or costs. W. H. Moore asserted that this is an enlightened approach that embodies three important premises: for every product quality characteristic there is a target value which results in the smallest loss; deviations from target value always results in increased loss to society; [and] loss should be measured in monetary units (dollars, pesos, francs, etc.). Figure I depicts Taguchis typically loss function. The figure also contrasts Taguchis function with the traditional view that states there are no losses if specifications are met. Taguchis Loss Function It can be seen that small deviations from the target value result in small losses. These losses, however, increase in a nonlinear fashion as deviations from the target value increase. The function shown above is a simple quadratic equation that compares the measured value of a unit of output Y to the target T.: Essentially, this equation states that the loss is proportional to the square of the deviation of the measured value, Y, from the target value, T. This implies that any deviation from the target (based on customers desires and needs) will diminish customer satisfaction. This is in contrast to the traditional definition of quality that states that quality is conformance to specifications. It should be recognized that the constant k can be determined if the value of L(Y) associated with some Y value are both known. Of course, under many circumstances a quadratic function is only an approximation. Since Taguchis loss function is presented in monetary terms, it provides a common language for all the departments or components within a company. Finally, the loss function can be used to define performance measures of a quality characteristic of a product or service. This property of Taguchis loss function will be taken up in the next section. But to anticipate the discussion of this property, Taguchis quadratic function can be converted to: This can be accomplished by assuming Y has some probability distribution with mean, a and variance o.2 This second mathematical expression states that average or expected loss is due either to process variation or to being off target (called bias), or both. TAGUCHI, ROBUST DESIGN, AND THEÂ  DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS Taguchi asserted that the development of his methods of experimental design started in Japan about 1948. These methods were then refined over the next several decades. They were introduced in the United States around 1980. Although, Taguchis approach was built on traditional concepts of design of experiments (DOE), such as factorial and fractional factorial designs and orthogonal arrays, he created and promoted some new DOE techniques such as signal-to-noise ratios, robust designs, and parameter and tolerance designs. Some experts in the field have shown that some of these techniques, especially signal-to-noise ratios, are not optimal under certain conditions. Nonetheless, Taguchis ideas concerning robust design and the design of experiments will now be discussed. DOE is a body of statistical techniques for the effective and efficient collection of data for a number of purposes. Two significant ones are the investigation of research hypotheses and the accurate determination of the relative effects of the many different factors that influence the quality of a product or process. DOE can be employed in both the product design phase and production phase. A crucial component of quality is a products ability to perform its tasks under a variety of conditions. Furthermore, the operating environmental conditions are usually beyond the control of the product designers, and, therefore robust designs are essential. Robust designs are based on the use of DOE techniques for finding product parameter settings (e.g., temperature settings or drill speeds), which enable products to be resilient to changes and variations in working environments. It is generally recognized that Taguchi deserves much of the credit for introducing the statistical study of robust design. We have seen how Taguchis loss function sets variation reduction as a primary goal for quality improvement. Taguchis DOE techniques employ the loss function concept to investigate both product parameters and key environmental factors. His DOE techniques are part of his philosophy of achieving economical quality design. To achieve economical product quality design, Taguchi proposed three phases: system design, parameter design, and tolerance design. In the first phase, system design, design engineers use their practical experience, along with scientific and engineering principles, to create a viably functional design. To elaborate, system design uses current technology, processes, materials, and engineering methods to define and construct a new system. The system can be a new product or process, or an improved modification of an existing product or process. The parameter design phase determines the optimal settings for the product or process parameters. These parameters have been identified during the system design phase. DOE methods are applied here to determine the optimal parameter settings. Taguchi constructed a limited number of experimental designs, from which U.S. engineers have found it easy to select and apply in their manufacturing environments. The goal of the parameter design is to design a robust product or process, which, as a result of minimizing performance variation, minimizes manufacturing and product lifetime costs. Robust design means that the performance of the product or process is insensitive to noise factors such as variation in environmental conditions, machine wear, or product to-product variation due to raw material differences. Taguchis DOE parameter design techniques are used to determine which controllable factors and which noise factors are the significant variables. The aim is to set the controllable factors at those levels that will result in a product or process being robust with respect to the noise factors. In our previous discussion of Taguchis loss function, two equations were discussed. It was observed that the second equation could be used to establish quality performance measures that permit the optimization of a given products quality characteristic. In improving quality, both the average response of a quality and its variation are important. The second equation suggests that it may be advantageous to combine both the average response and variation into a single measure. And Taguchi did this with his signal-to-noise ratios (S/N). Consequently, Taguchis approach is to select design parameter levels that will maximize the appropriate S/N ratio. These S/N ratios can be used to get closer to a given target value (such as tensile strength or baked tile dimensions), or to reduce variation in the products quality characteristic(s). For example, one S/N ratio corresponds to what Taguchi called nominal is best. Such a ratio is selected when a specific target value, such as tensile strength, is the design goal. For the nominal is best case, Taguchi recommended finding an adjustment factor (some parameter setting) that will eliminate the bias discussed in the second equation. Sometimes a factor can be found that will control the average response without affecting the variance. If this is the case, our second equation tells us that the expected loss becomes: Consequently, the aim now is to reduce the variation. Therefore, Taguchis S/N ratio is: where S 2 is the samples standard deviation. In this formula, by minimizing S 2 , 10 log 10 S 2 , is maximized. Recall that all of Taguchis S/N ratios are to be maximized. Finally, a few brief comments concerning the tolerance design phase. This phase establishes tolerances, or specification limits, for either the product or process parameters that have been identified as critical during the second phase, the parameter design phase. The goal here is to establish tolerances wide enough to reduce manufacturing costs, while at the same time assuring that the product or process characteristics are within certain bounds. EXAMPLES AND CONCLUSIONS As Thomas P. Ryan has stated, Taguchi at the very least, has focused our attention on new objectives in achieving quality improvement. The statistical tools for accomplishing these objectives will likely continue to be developed. Quality management gurus, such as W. Edwards Deming (1900-1993) and Kaoru Ishikawa (1915-), have stressed the importance of continuous quality improvement by concentrating on processes upstream. This is a fundamental break with the traditional practice of relying on inspection downstream. Taguchi emphasized the importance of DOE in improving the quality of the engineering design of products and processes. As previously mentioned, however, his methods are frequently statistically inefficient and cumbersome. Nonetheless, Taguchis design of experiments have been widely applied and theoretically refined and extended. Two application cases and one refinement example will now be discussed. K. N. Anand, in an article in Quality Engineering, discussed a welding problem. Welding was performed to repair cracks and blown holes on the cast-iron housing of an assembled electrical machine. Customers wanted a defect-free quality weld, however the welding process had resulted in a fairly high percentage of welding defects. Management and welders identified five variables and two interactions that were considered the key factors in improving quality. A Taguchi orthogonal design was performed resulting in the identification of two highly significant interactions and a defect-free welding process. The second application, presented by M. W. Sonius and B. W. Tew in a Quality Engineering article, involved reducing stress components in the connection between a composite component and a metallic end fitting for a composite structure. Bonding, pinning, or riveting the fitting in place traditionally made the connections. Nine significant variables that could affect the performance of the entrapped fiber connections were identified and a Taguchi experimental design was performed. The experiment identified two of the nine factors and their respective optimal settings. Therefore, stress levels were significantly reduced. The theoretical refinement example involves Taguchi robust designs. We have seen where such a design can result in products and processes that are insensitive to noise factors. Using Taguchis quadratic loss function, however, may provide a poor approximation of true loss and suboptimal product or process quality. John F. Kros and Christina M. Mastrangelo established relationships between nonquadratic loss functions and Taguchis signal-to-noise ratios. Applying these relationships in an experimental design can change the recommended selection of the respective settings of the key parameters and result in smaller losses.

Foreign Policy :: War on Terrorism

A nation’s foreign policy is the result of decades of work designed to answer the needs of a nation, both international and domestic, in the most optimal fashion possible. As a result, a nation’s foreign policy is rarely changed within a single day. September 11th, however, changed the direction and motivation of United States foreign policy in a matter of minutes. With the death of nearly 3,000 Americans, the collapse of the World Trade Center, and the nation’s air traffic control system completely shutdown, terrorism became the number one priority in U.S. foreign policy. Although foreign policy issues that existed prior to September 11th are still being addressed, seemingly everything has taken the back burner to our newly waged War on Terrorism. Currently, the War on Terrorism is being fought on several fronts. Abroad we are coping with the aftermath of war in both Afghanistan and Iraq; we are still hunting for Osama-bin Ladin and Saddam Hussein. We are also once again desperately trying to facilitate peace negotiations between Israel and Palestine in hopes that such efforts will curb terrorism, in both the Middle East and around the globe. At home, there are ongoing efforts to make our country safer through tougher security measures. Since September 11th, President Bush has drastically changed the way the U.S. deals with other nations, both allies and enemies. Presently, our nation is working under a pre-emptive foreign policy. The aim of this new policy is to prevent an attack on our nation by any means necessary. This controversial policy was exercised through President Bush’s pre-emptive strikes in the War with Iraq. In sync with our aggressive change of policy, U.S. military spending has soared above the 288.8 billion spent in the year 2000. Total defense spending for 2003 is 391.6 billion, this accounts for 51.6% of the discretionary budget. Requests for military spending in 2004 further increase to 399.1 billion. Figures such as these have been a source of major criticism for the President. Liberals especially emphasize the escalating costs of the War on Terrorism and on-going operations in Iraq. Foreign Policy :: War on Terrorism A nation’s foreign policy is the result of decades of work designed to answer the needs of a nation, both international and domestic, in the most optimal fashion possible. As a result, a nation’s foreign policy is rarely changed within a single day. September 11th, however, changed the direction and motivation of United States foreign policy in a matter of minutes. With the death of nearly 3,000 Americans, the collapse of the World Trade Center, and the nation’s air traffic control system completely shutdown, terrorism became the number one priority in U.S. foreign policy. Although foreign policy issues that existed prior to September 11th are still being addressed, seemingly everything has taken the back burner to our newly waged War on Terrorism. Currently, the War on Terrorism is being fought on several fronts. Abroad we are coping with the aftermath of war in both Afghanistan and Iraq; we are still hunting for Osama-bin Ladin and Saddam Hussein. We are also once again desperately trying to facilitate peace negotiations between Israel and Palestine in hopes that such efforts will curb terrorism, in both the Middle East and around the globe. At home, there are ongoing efforts to make our country safer through tougher security measures. Since September 11th, President Bush has drastically changed the way the U.S. deals with other nations, both allies and enemies. Presently, our nation is working under a pre-emptive foreign policy. The aim of this new policy is to prevent an attack on our nation by any means necessary. This controversial policy was exercised through President Bush’s pre-emptive strikes in the War with Iraq. In sync with our aggressive change of policy, U.S. military spending has soared above the 288.8 billion spent in the year 2000. Total defense spending for 2003 is 391.6 billion, this accounts for 51.6% of the discretionary budget. Requests for military spending in 2004 further increase to 399.1 billion. Figures such as these have been a source of major criticism for the President. Liberals especially emphasize the escalating costs of the War on Terrorism and on-going operations in Iraq.

Risk Factors Affecting Hispanic Domestic Violence Essay -- Masculinity,

Masculinities Patriarchy ideology is embedded in the predominantly Latin American structure of machismo of supremacy over females (Alcalde, 2011). There are hegemonic methods of masculinity that stress male authority, magisterial and honor concerning females to some males, but it is an unusual overstated and exaggerated in male masculinities (Alcalde, 2011: 465). In contrast, there are many who do not advocate violence, and they seek to educate others on the importance of not using violence towards women. They see masculinity as the opposite of violent, and they use masculinity to protect women (Alcalde, 2011: 465). It is strong bond which protects the family (Alcalde, 2011: 465). Society has transformed with the ages and Mexican and Mexican American fathers have adapted to different, more caring roles in their family (Saracho and Spodek, 2008: 81). As a matter of fact, many fathers have become their kids’ developmental caretakers and dynamic educators (Saracho and Spodek, 2008: 81). Researchers have written papers portraying Mexican and Mexican American fathers as imperceptible, emotionless, distant and not nurturing (Saracho and Spodek, 2008: 81). Mexican and Mexican American, and redefine machismo as positive attributes which includes courage, kindness, and patience (Saracho and Spodek, 2008: 81). Today men are more willing to switc h gender roles becoming good role models, and they help with household tasks and their children. In the case study of Emiliano Diaz de Leon, positive masculinity turned his life around; furthermore, the role models he met at age 15 changed him from an abusive, disdainful young man into a positive role model (Aker, 2013) As a boy, he nothing but negative male role models and the change came from su... ...roblem Drinking Among Male Mexican and Central American Immigrant Laborers A Review of the Literature. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 29(4), 413-455. Perilla, J. L. (1999). Domestic violence as a human rights issue: The case of immigrant Latinos. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 21(2), 107-133. Straus, M. A. (1987). The Conflict Tactics Scales and its critics: an evaluation and new data on validity and reliability. Straus, M. A., & Yllo, K. (1990). Patriarchy and violence against wives: The impact of structural and normative factors. Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in, 8(145), 383-399. Worby, P. A., & Organista, K. C. (2007). Alcohol use and problem drinking among male Mexican and Central American immigrant laborers: A review of the literature. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 29(4), 413-455.